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Operational amplifier are the basis for many circuit building blocks especially in the range of DC to 1 meg Hz. See [[OpAmp Links]]. | Operational amplifier are the basis for many circuit building blocks especially in the range of DC to 1 meg Hz. See [[OpAmp Links]]. | ||
− | == | + | == Page Status.... == |
− | ( | + | ( Russ_hensel is currently building this page, he is close to done for the near term. Schematics have been drawn in Eagle and the screen captured. Feel free to add your own circuits, as long as they are basic building blocks, there are lots of other places for project circuits. ) |
− | + | Some entries are not complete, if the explanation of the circuit does not match the diagram that is a good tip off. | |
To Do | To Do | ||
* Why not put alpha order? | * Why not put alpha order? | ||
* work on external links | * work on external links | ||
+ | * Add Constant Current Circuit | ||
+ | * Wheatstone Bridge. | ||
+ | * diode snubber | ||
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<!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | <!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | ||
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== Current Sense Resistor ( Shunt Resistance ) == | == Current Sense Resistor ( Shunt Resistance ) == | ||
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Where | Where | ||
*R shunt resistor used to sense the current ( and divert it from the meter ). Usually much less in value than the internal resistance of the meter. | *R shunt resistor used to sense the current ( and divert it from the meter ). Usually much less in value than the internal resistance of the meter. | ||
− | *METER meter or other device used to measure the voltage across the shunt | + | *METER meter or other device used to measure the voltage across the shunt reistor. Often the resistance of the meter is ignored ( if high ). |
*BATTERY a battery or other voltage source. | *BATTERY a battery or other voltage source. | ||
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Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
− | In the old days a sensitive meter, say 50 mv full scale, would be used with a set of shunt, some looking like metal bars, to measure a wide range of currents, up to and exceeding 50 amps | + | In the old days a sensitive meter, say 50 mv full scale, would be used with a set of shunt, some looking like metal bars, to measure a wide range of currents, up to and exceeding 50 amps. |
− | + | More information: | |
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#[http://www.scienceshareware.com/bg-current-monitoring.htm Scienceshareware.com's How A Precision Resistor Is Used to Measure / Calculate Current and Power in an Electrical Circuit.] | #[http://www.scienceshareware.com/bg-current-monitoring.htm Scienceshareware.com's How A Precision Resistor Is Used to Measure / Calculate Current and Power in an Electrical Circuit.] | ||
#[http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/746/ High-Side Current-Sense Measurement: Circuits and Principles] | #[http://www.maxim-ic.com/appnotes.cfm/appnote_number/746/ High-Side Current-Sense Measurement: Circuits and Principles] | ||
#[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical) Shunt (electrical) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] | #[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunt_(electrical) Shunt (electrical) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] | ||
* Other ways to measure current: [[Motor_driver#current_sense]] | * Other ways to measure current: [[Motor_driver#current_sense]] | ||
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== Filter Capacitor / Decoupling Capacitor / Low Pass Filter == | == Filter Capacitor / Decoupling Capacitor / Low Pass Filter == | ||
Line 115: | Line 46: | ||
*D2 is a diode, it lets current pass only in the direction of the arrow. | *D2 is a diode, it lets current pass only in the direction of the arrow. | ||
*R resistor | *R resistor | ||
− | *Input a source of alternating current ( | + | *Input a source of alternating current ( ocasionally DC in which case the whole circuit serves only to protect against a reverse connection. |
C1 the first, main, filter capacitor. | C1 the first, main, filter capacitor. | ||
− | C2 the second filter | + | C2 the second filter capicator. |
Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
− | In this circuit C1 is a classic filter capacitor it charges while the diode conducts, it discharges and supplies current when the diode does not. R and C2 are a second stage filter. With R set to 0, it simply adds to the value of C1. With R in the | + | In this circuit C1 is a classic filter capacitor it charges while the diode conducts, it discharges and supplies current when the diode does not. R and C2 are a second stage filter. With R set to 0, it simply adds to the value of C1. With R in the circit it forms a low pass filter which helps remove the ripple from the power ( at the cost of some voltage drop ). In the old days R would often be a low value inductor which had a similar effect without the voltage drop. A capacitor alone is often put across a circuit component that uses power to supply bursts of current and stop noise from being propigated through the power supply. |
− | + | More Information: | |
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<!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | <!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | ||
− | + | == Op amp Non Inverting Amplifier == | |
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− | == Op | ||
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Circuit: | Circuit: | ||
[[Image:opamp_nia.png | Op amp Non Inverting Amplifier ]] | [[Image:opamp_nia.png | Op amp Non Inverting Amplifier ]] | ||
Line 170: | Line 69: | ||
More Information: | More Information: | ||
− | * | + | *[OpAmp Links] |
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<!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | <!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | ||
== Op amp Unity Gain Buffer == | == Op amp Unity Gain Buffer == | ||
− | Use this circuit when you have a signal of high impedance ( can supply only a little current ) that you want to connect to another circuit that draws a significant current ( up to about 10 ma for the typical op amp. ). For example if you wish to measure the | + | Use this circuit when you have a signal of high impedance ( can supply only a little current ) that you want to connect to another circuit that draws a significant current ( up to about 10 ma for the typical op amp. ). For example if you wish to measure the out put of a voltage divider with a 0 to 1 ma meter a unity gain buffer might be just what you need. This circuit is also know as a voltage follower. |
− | The unity gain buffer has an output voltage just the same as the input voltage. The advantage is that the input circuit does not “feel” the output. That is the input acts pretty much like a very large resistor ( many mega ohms or more ) connected to ground, and the output | + | The unity gain buffer has an output voltage just the same as the input voltage. The advantage is that the input circuit does not “feel” the output. That is the input acts pretty much like a very large resistor ( many mega ohms or more ) connected to ground, and the output supply's whatever current ( up to about 10 ma ) is necessary to maintain the output voltage. Here is the circuit: |
Circuit: | Circuit: | ||
Line 216: | Line 91: | ||
Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
The values of RIN and RFB are not very critical and are normally 0 ohms, just a straight connection. The op amp here is a quad or 4 op amp part, we are using just one section of it. Power needs to be supplied to pin 8 and 4 in the usual way for op amps. | The values of RIN and RFB are not very critical and are normally 0 ohms, just a straight connection. The op amp here is a quad or 4 op amp part, we are using just one section of it. Power needs to be supplied to pin 8 and 4 in the usual way for op amps. | ||
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More information: | More information: | ||
Line 239: | Line 113: | ||
Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
− | I you have a lot of components that use the same voltage put them in parallel. This is how most lights in a house are wired. Each individual light can be turned on and off without changing the current or voltage in the other lights. With a bit of math you can show that the two resistors act like one resistor of value R = | + | I you have a lot of components that use the same voltage put them in parallel. This is how most lights in a house are wired. Each individual light can be turned on and off without changing the current or voltage in the other lights. With a bit of math you can show that the two resistors act like one resistor of value R = R1 + R2 /( R1 * R2 ). When you need a resistor of a different value than you have you can sometimes “make it up” using a parallel connection of resistors you do have. To identical resistors in parallel are equivalent to one of half the resistance. A parallel circuit can have more than 2 resistors, there can be 3, 4, ... You can find out more about parallel circuits in the references. This circuit should be contrasted with the Series Circuit. Parallel circuits can also be used with other components, the equations vary, for capicators the capacitances add in a parallel circuit. |
More information: | More information: | ||
Line 249: | Line 123: | ||
Use this circuit when you want to feed a user input to a digital circuit, for example a PIC input pin. | Use this circuit when you want to feed a user input to a digital circuit, for example a PIC input pin. | ||
− | A pull up is a fairly high value resistor (say 1 to 100 K ohms) that is connected to the positive side of the power supply. This makes the other end of the resistor the same voltage as the power supply (as long as it is connected to a high impedance | + | A pull up is a fairly high value resistor ( say 1 to 100 K ohms ) that is connected to the positive side of the power supply. This makes the other end of the resistor the same voltage as the power supply ( as long as it is connected to a high impedance. The other end of the resistor is connected to a switch that is then connected to ground. When the switch is connected current flow through the resistor dropps the entire power supply voltage and the input voltage for the circuit is now 0 (sometimes called active low, since when the switch is active the output is low). Pull up is sometimes used without the switch to keep a signal high all the time. |
Circuit: | Circuit: | ||
Line 257: | Line 131: | ||
Where | Where | ||
*PUSH_BUTTON_SWITCH is a push button switch | *PUSH_BUTTON_SWITCH is a push button switch | ||
+ | *R_LED is a current limiting resistor for the LE | ||
*R_PULLUP is the pull up resistor | *R_PULLUP is the pull up resistor | ||
*VPLUS_VDD is the power supply voltage | *VPLUS_VDD is the power supply voltage | ||
More information: | More information: | ||
− | + | [http://www.seattlerobotics.org/encoder/mar97/basics.html Very Basic Circuits] | |
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<!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | <!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | ||
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== Pull Down and Switch == | == Pull Down and Switch == | ||
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Circuit: | Circuit: | ||
[[Image:pds.png | Pull Down and Switch ]] | [[Image:pds.png | Pull Down and Switch ]] | ||
Line 310: | Line 149: | ||
Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
Just a variation on the Pull Up and Switch. | Just a variation on the Pull Up and Switch. | ||
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<!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | <!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | ||
− | + | == Series Circuit == | |
− | + | In a series circuit the current first flows through one component then another and so on. The key to these circuits is that the current is the same in every element of the circuit and the total of the voltage across each of the components adds up to the voltage of the battery. A current meter is always in series with the part of the circuit whose current is being measured. | |
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− | + | Circuit: | |
+ | [[Image:series.png | Series Circuit ]] | ||
− | + | Where | |
+ | *R1 resistor 1 or any other 2 terminal component, capacitor, inductor, diode.... | ||
+ | *R2 resistor 2 or any other 2 terminal component..... | ||
+ | *BAT a battery or other voltage source | ||
− | + | I you have a lot of components that use the same current put them in series. This is often how LEDs are connected to higher voltages; this also eliminates the need for a current limiting resistor on each LED. With a bit of math you can show that the two resistors act like one resistor of value R = R1 + R2 . When you need a resistor of a different value than you have you can sometimes “make it up” using a series connection of resistors you do have. To identical resistors in series are equivalent to one of double the resistance. A series circuit can have more than 2 resistors, there can be 3, 4, ... You can find out more about series circuits in the references. This circuit should be contrasted with the Parallel Circuit. A voltage divider is an example of a series circuit. | |
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+ | More information: | ||
+ | * [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_circuit Series and parallel circuits From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] | ||
<!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | <!---------------------------------------------------------------------> | ||
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== Three Terminal Regulator == | == Three Terminal Regulator == | ||
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Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
− | The circuit above is very basic. Practical circuits normally include filter capacitors on both the input and the output. Most regulators protect against both over temperature and over current. Regulators come in various voltages both positive and negative. They also vary in maximum current output. There are also adjustable regulators, ways of using regular regulators as adjustable ones, and ways of boosting the current output. The spec sheets often describe how to do these things. Voltage regulators “use up” a couple of volts of the input voltage, low drop out regulators have use less, cost more. It is a good idea to check the specification for any regulator you are going to use. The LM78xx ( positive ) and LM79xx ( negative ) are quite common | + | The circuit above is very basic. Practical circuits normally include filter capacitors on both the input and the output. Most regulators protect against both over temperature and over current. Regulators come in various voltages both positive and negative. They also vary in maximum current output. There are also adjustable regulators, ways of using regular regulators as adjustable ones, and ways of boosting the current output. The spec sheets often describe how to do these things. Voltage regulators “use up” a couple of volts of the input voltage, low drop out regulators have use less, cost more. It is a good idea to check the specification for any regulator you are going to use. The LM78xx ( positive ) and LM79xx ( negative ) are quite common. |
− | More information: | + | More information: |
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*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7805 7805 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] | *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7805 7805 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] | ||
*[http://www.tkk.fi/Misc/Electronics/circuits/psu_5v.html Simple 5V power supply for digital circuits] | *[http://www.tkk.fi/Misc/Electronics/circuits/psu_5v.html Simple 5V power supply for digital circuits] | ||
Line 396: | Line 191: | ||
Use this circuit when you wish to turn a load on and off with both a low voltage and a low current. Note that neither side of the load is grounded. | Use this circuit when you wish to turn a load on and off with both a low voltage and a low current. Note that neither side of the load is grounded. | ||
− | A low side switch is one which switches a circuit on and off at the ground or low side of the circuit. The advantage of a low side switch is that when using a transistor as the switch the voltage to drive the transistor is itself a low voltage. It is often the easy way to drive | + | A low side switch is one which switches a circuit on and off at the ground or low side of the circuit. The advantage of a low side switch is that when using a transistor as the switch the voltage to drive the transistor is itself a low voltage. It is often the easy way to drive leds motors and other high current devices from such low power devices as PIC output ports. Low side switche are popular and there are many integrated circuits for them as well as this circuit. |
− | Circuit | + | Circuit: |
− | [[Image: | + | [[Image:tran_lss.png | Transistor Low Side Switch ]] |
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Where | Where | ||
Line 419: | Line 210: | ||
*Compute the value of R_LED using ohms law and the specifications for the LED. | *Compute the value of R_LED using ohms law and the specifications for the LED. | ||
*Compute the current through the LED. | *Compute the current through the LED. | ||
− | *The transistor must | + | *The transistor must supply the current, it should be equal approxtely to the input voltage divided by R1 times the beta of the transistor. |
An example calculation would be nice, and will appear later. | An example calculation would be nice, and will appear later. | ||
− | This circuit is sometimes called "grounded-emitter configuration". | + | This circuit is sometimes called "grounded-emitter configuration". |
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More Information: | More Information: | ||
Line 439: | Line 221: | ||
== Transistor High Side Switch == | == Transistor High Side Switch == | ||
− | Use this circuit when you wish to turn a load on and off with a voltage at a low current. Note that low side of the load is grounded. The voltage to turn on the switch is equal to the supply voltage ( or perhaps just a bit larger ) | + | Use this circuit when you wish to turn a load on and off with a voltage at a low current. Note that low side of the load is grounded. The voltage to turn on the switch is equal to the supply voltage ( or perhaps just a bit larger ) |
− | A high side switch is one which switches a circuit on and off at the supply voltage or high side of the circuit | + | A high side switch is one which switches a circuit on and off at the supply voltage or high side of the circuit. The advantage of a high side switch is that the load is grounded on one side. Compared to the low side switch it needs a higher voltage to drive it, but it also eliminates one resistor of that circuit. It the voltage to drive it is available it may be the circuit of choice. It is often the easy way to drive leds motors and other high current devices from such low power devices as PIC output ports. |
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Circuit: | Circuit: | ||
− | + | [[Image:tran_hss.png | Transistor High Side Switch ]] | |
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− | [[Image:tran_hss.png | Transistor High Side Switch]] | ||
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Where | Where | ||
Line 471: | Line 242: | ||
No resistor is needed into the base of the transistor because as the load draws current the voltage at the base will rise and limit the base current. The input voltage should be about equal to VPLUS_VDD, high compared to that needed for the low side switch. | No resistor is needed into the base of the transistor because as the load draws current the voltage at the base will rise and limit the base current. The input voltage should be about equal to VPLUS_VDD, high compared to that needed for the low side switch. | ||
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== Transistor Emitter Follower == | == Transistor Emitter Follower == | ||
Line 508: | Line 249: | ||
This circuit is a variation of the transistor high side switch. The difference is that we typically drive this circuit in a linear way ( all of the voltages between 0 and the supply voltage ) to make it a linear amplifier. | This circuit is a variation of the transistor high side switch. The difference is that we typically drive this circuit in a linear way ( all of the voltages between 0 and the supply voltage ) to make it a linear amplifier. | ||
− | The emitter follower is also called a common collector circuit | + | The emitter follower is also called a common collector circuit. |
Circuit: | Circuit: | ||
Line 517: | Line 258: | ||
*R_LOAD represents the resistance of the load | *R_LOAD represents the resistance of the load | ||
*Q is a npn bipolar transistor | *Q is a npn bipolar transistor | ||
− | *VPLUS_VDD is the power supply for the | + | *VPLUS_VDD is the power supply for the LED |
The current to drive the circuit is approximately the current to drive the load divided by the beta of the transistor. Use a Darlington connected transistor for a very high beta. | The current to drive the circuit is approximately the current to drive the load divided by the beta of the transistor. Use a Darlington connected transistor for a very high beta. | ||
Line 538: | Line 279: | ||
*[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_collector Common collector From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] | *[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_collector Common collector From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] | ||
+ | |||
+ | == Voltage Divider == | ||
+ | Voltage Divider | ||
+ | |||
+ | We use a voltage divider when we have a voltage that is too big and we just want a fraction ( like 1/3 or .33 ) of it. It is like an amplifier with a gain of less than 1. We use two resistors, the output is always a constant fraction of the input voltage. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Sometimes we use a potentiometer as a voltage divider. This makes the ratio of output to input adjustable. This is how we make a gain control or volume control. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Circuit: | ||
+ | [[Image:vdivide.png | Voltage Divider ]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | Where | ||
+ | *R1 resistor 1 | ||
+ | *R2 resistor 2 | ||
+ | *POT a potentiometer | ||
+ | |||
+ | The ratio of input to output is: output/input = R2/( R1 + R2 ). | ||
+ | |||
+ | Discussion | ||
+ | |||
+ | The equation assumes that the input source is low impedance and the output is high impedance, if this is not true consider using a buffer on the input or the output ( Op Amp Unity Gain Buffer or Transistor Emitter Follower ) For audio applications a so called “log taper” pot may be used as it better matches the way in which we hear. If you want a calibrated control you may use a precision “10 turn precision” pot. | ||
+ | |||
+ | |||
+ | More information: | ||
+ | *[http://www.seattlerobotics.org/encoder/mar97/basics.html Very Basic Circuits] | ||
+ | |||
+ | == Light Emitting Diode ( with current limiting resistor ) == | ||
+ | |||
+ | Use this circuit to light low power LEDs | ||
+ | |||
+ | A light emitting diode can be very sensitive to small voltage changes, just a bit too much voltage and the LED will draw too much current and “burn out”. Thus it is often used with a resistor in series. If we have a 5 volt source of voltage and an LED that is specified for 2.5 volts at 10 ma, then the resistor must have ( 5 – 2.5 ) volts = 2.5 volts and 10 ma. Using ohms law 2.5/10 x 10 ee-3 = 250 ohms. | ||
+ | |||
+ | A transistor low or high side switch can be used with the resistor if your input cannot supply enough current for the LED. | ||
+ | |||
+ | Circuit: | ||
+ | [[Image:ledres.png | Parallel Circuit ]] | ||
+ | |||
+ | Where | ||
+ | *LED the LED | ||
+ | *R_LED the current limiting resistor | ||
+ | *INPUT voltage source for lighting the LED | ||
+ | |||
+ | More information: | ||
+ | *[http://www.seattlerobotics.org/encoder/mar97/basics.html Very Basic Circuits ] | ||
+ | *[http://www.iguanalabs.com/1stled.htm Learning About Transistors and LEDs ] | ||
== Transistor -- Push Pull Circuit == | == Transistor -- Push Pull Circuit == | ||
Line 550: | Line 336: | ||
Where | Where | ||
*Q1 transistor 1 need not be a TIP41C but does need to be NPN | *Q1 transistor 1 need not be a TIP41C but does need to be NPN | ||
− | *Q2 | + | *Q2 resistor 2 need not be a TIP42C but does need to be PNP |
*R_LOAD represents the load, here it is in the emitter, it could also be placed in the collector circuit | *R_LOAD represents the load, here it is in the emitter, it could also be placed in the collector circuit | ||
*VPLUS_VDD Power supply voltage, positive. | *VPLUS_VDD Power supply voltage, positive. | ||
Line 573: | Line 359: | ||
Where | Where | ||
*Q1 transistor 1 need not be a 2N3565 but does need to be NPN | *Q1 transistor 1 need not be a 2N3565 but does need to be NPN | ||
− | *Q2 | + | *Q2 resistor 2 need not be a 2N3565 but does need to be NPN |
*R_LOAD represents the load, here it is in the emitter, it could also be placed in the collector circuit | *R_LOAD represents the load, here it is in the emitter, it could also be placed in the collector circuit | ||
*VPLUS_VDD Power supply voltage, positive. | *VPLUS_VDD Power supply voltage, positive. | ||
Line 579: | Line 365: | ||
Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
− | Often Q1 is a high gain small signal transistor and Q2 a lower gain power transistor. You can use PNP transistors by using a negative power supply. Use a ULN2803 ( or similar chips ) to get 8 darlingtons in one package, useful as low side switches and in conjunction with microcontrollers | + | Often Q1 is a high gain small signal transistor and Q2 a lower gain power transistor. You can use PNP transistors by using a negative power supply. Use a ULN2803 ( or similar chips ) to get 8 darlingtons in one package, useful as low side switches and in conjunction with microcontrollers. |
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More information: | More information: | ||
− | * | + | * http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darlington_transistor Darlington transistor From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia] |
*[http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/trancirc.htm Transistor Circuits ( search on Darlington )] | *[http://www.kpsec.freeuk.com/trancirc.htm Transistor Circuits ( search on Darlington )] | ||
*[http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/Semi/SEMI_4.html Lessons In Electric Circuits -- Volume III Chapter 4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS Darlington pair ( search on Darlington )] | *[http://www.ibiblio.org/kuphaldt/electricCircuits/Semi/SEMI_4.html Lessons In Electric Circuits -- Volume III Chapter 4 BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS Darlington pair ( search on Darlington )] | ||
− | == | + | == Schmitt Trigger == |
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Circuit: | Circuit: | ||
− | [[Image: | + | [[Image:opamp_st.png | Schmitt Trigger ]] |
Where | Where | ||
− | * | + | *RIN input resistor -- when this inputs more current than the positive feedback resistor the output switches to the voltage at the input, else it stays at the output voltage it has already reached. Typically lower in value than RFB. |
− | + | *RFB positive feedback resistor the output voltage is feed back to the input and keeps the output at its current voltage. | |
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Discussion: | Discussion: | ||
− | The circuit is | + | The circuit is used to switch between two states even in the presence of noise. This is an somewhat unusual op amp circuit as it uses positive not negative feedback. See the references for a better explanation and variations on the circuit. |
+ | Schmidt Triggers are also available as integrated circuits which require no external components. | ||
More Information: | More Information: | ||
− | *[ | + | *[[OpAmp Links]] |
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